Concept of environment. Environmental Thought. Early environmental thinking. Environmentalism.

Geographical Explanation of Concepts:

1. Environment in Geography:

- Geographical Scope: In geography, the environment refers to the physical, biological, and cultural features of a specific area. This includes natural elements like landforms, climate, vegetation, and human-made features such as urban areas and infrastructure.

- Spatial Analysis: Geographers study how these environmental components interact, shaping the landscape and influencing human activities. Spatial patterns, distribution, and environmental changes are key considerations.

2. Environmental Thought in Geography:

- Geographical Perspective: Environmental thought in geography involves examining how human societies perceive and interact with their surroundings. Geographers explore the spatial dimensions of environmental attitudes and beliefs.

- Spatial Variation: Different regions may exhibit varying environmental thoughts influenced by factors like local ecosystems, historical experiences, and economic activities.

3. Early Environmental Thinking in Geography:

- Geographical Context: Early environmental thinking in geography emerged as a response to observable changes in landscapes due to human activities, especially during the Industrial Revolution.

- Spatial Impact: Geographers study how human actions altered geographical features and ecosystems, leading to insights into the spatial distribution of environmental degradation and conservation efforts.

4. Environmentalism in Geography:

- Geographical Dynamics: Environmentalism in geography is a spatially diverse movement advocating for sustainable practices, conservation, and protection of natural resources.

- Spatial Interventions: Geographers analyze how environmentalism manifests in different regions, influencing policies, land use planning, and community initiatives to address geographical challenges such as pollution, deforestation, and climate change.

In geography, these concepts are integral to understanding the dynamic relationships between humans and their environments, offering insights into spatial patterns, variations, and interventions for sustainable geographical development.

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Optical Sensors in Remote Sensing

1. What Are Optical Sensors? Optical sensors are remote sensing instruments that detect solar radiation reflected or emitted from the Earth's surface in specific portions of the electromagnetic spectrum (EMS) . They mainly work in: Visible region (0.4–0.7 µm) Near-Infrared – NIR (0.7–1.3 µm) Shortwave Infrared – SWIR (1.3–3.0 µm) Thermal Infrared – TIR (8–14 µm) — emitted energy, not reflected Optical sensors capture spectral signatures of surface features. Each object reflects/absorbs energy differently, creating a unique spectral response pattern . a) Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS) The continuous range of wavelengths. Optical sensing uses solar reflective bands and sometimes thermal bands . b) Spectral Signature The unique pattern of reflectance or absorbance of an object across wavelengths. Example: Vegetation reflects strongly in NIR Water absorbs strongly in NIR and SWIR (appears dark) c) Radiance and Reflectance Radi...

Radar Sensors in Remote Sensing

Radar sensors are active remote sensing instruments that use microwave radiation to detect and measure Earth's surface features. They transmit their own energy (radio waves) toward the Earth and record the backscattered signal that returns to the sensor. Since they do not depend on sunlight, radar systems can collect data: day or night through clouds, fog, smoke, and rain in all weather conditions This makes radar extremely useful for Earth observation. 1. Active Sensor A radar sensor produces and transmits its own microwaves. This is different from optical and thermal sensors, which depend on sunlight or emitted heat. 2. Microwave Region Radar operates in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum , typically from 1 mm to 1 m wavelength. Common radar frequency bands: P-band (70 cm) L-band (23 cm) S-band (9 cm) C-band (5.6 cm) X-band (3 cm) Each band penetrates and interacts with surfaces differently: Lo...

Thermal Sensors in Remote Sensing

Thermal sensors are remote sensing instruments that detect naturally emitted thermal infrared (TIR) radiation from the Earth's surface. Unlike optical sensors (which detect reflected sunlight), thermal sensors measure heat energy emitted by objects because of their temperature. They work mainly in the Thermal Infrared region (8–14 µm) of the electromagnetic spectrum. 1. Thermal Infrared Radiation All objects above 0 Kelvin (absolute zero) emit electromagnetic radiation. This is explained by Planck's Radiation Law . For Earth's surface temperature range (about 250–330 K), the peak emitted radiation occurs in the 8–14 µm thermal window . Thus, thermal sensors detect emitted energy , not reflected sunlight. 2. Emissivity Emissivity is the efficiency with which a material emits thermal radiation. Values range from 0 to 1 : Water, vegetation → high emissivity (0.95–0.99) Bare soil → medium (0.85–0.95) Metals → low (0.1–0.3) E...

Geometric Correction

When satellite or aerial images are captured, they often contain distortions (errors in shape, scale, or position) caused by many factors — like Earth's curvature, satellite motion, terrain height (relief), or the Earth's rotation . These distortions make the image not properly aligned with real-world coordinates (latitude and longitude). 👉 Geometric correction is the process of removing these distortions so that every pixel in the image correctly represents its location on the Earth's surface. After geometric correction, the image becomes geographically referenced and can be used with maps and GIS data. Types 1. Systematic Correction Systematic errors are predictable and can be modeled mathematically. They occur due to the geometry and movement of the satellite sensor or the Earth. Common systematic distortions: Scan skew – due to the motion of the sensor as it scans the Earth. Mirror velocity variation – scanning mirror moves at a va...

LiDAR in Remote Sensing

LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) is an active remote sensing technology that uses laser pulses to measure distances to the Earth's surface and create high-resolution 3D maps . LiDAR sensors emit short pulses of laser light (usually in the near-infrared range) and measure the time it takes for the pulse to return after hitting an object. Because LiDAR measures distance very precisely, it is excellent for mapping: terrain vegetation height buildings forests coastlines flood plains ✅ 1. Active Sensor LiDAR sends its own laser energy, unlike passive sensors that rely on sunlight. ✅ 2. Laser Pulse LiDAR emits thousands of pulses per second (even millions). Wavelengths commonly used: Near-Infrared (NIR) → land and vegetation mapping Green (532 nm) → water/ bathymetry (penetrates shallow water) ✅ 3. Time of Flight (TOF) The sensor measures the time taken for the laser to travel: from the sensor → to the sur...

Vineesh V, Geography

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