Vineesh V, Geography

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Plate tectonics

Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

The Air Act, 1981 was passed by the Indian Parliament on 29 March 1981 and came into force in May 1981 . It is India's first major law to control air pollution . It was enacted after the 1972 United Nations Conference on Human Environment in Stockholm , where India promised to protect the environment. The Act was passed under Article 253 of the Indian Constitution , which allows Parliament to make laws to fulfill international agreements. 📌 Why Was This Act Needed? During the 1970s and 1980s: Rapid industrialization Growth of urban areas Increase in vehicles Use of coal and fossil fuels led to severe air pollution in Indian cities. From an Environmental Geography perspective , this shows how human activities (anthropogenic factors) affect the atmosphere , creating environmental problems like smog, acid rain, and health hazards. Objectives The Act aims to: Prevent air pollution Control emission of pollutants Reduce (abate) existing pollution Maintain air quality standards Air...

Geographic Database Design in GIS

Geographic database design means planning how spatial data (maps + attributes) will be stored in a GIS system. It is done in three main phases : Conceptual Design → What data is needed? Logical Design → How should data be structured? Physical Design → How will it be implemented in software? Conceptual Database Design (The "WHAT" Phase) 🔹 Meaning This is the high-level planning stage . It focuses on understanding real-world geographic features and their relationships. It is independent of any software (not linked to PostgreSQL, ArcGIS, etc.). 🔹 Key Terminologies Entity → A real-world object Example: River, Road, Building, Village Attribute → Information about an entity Example: River → Name, Length Road → Type, Width Relationship → How entities are connected Example: Road crosses River Village located near River ER Diagram (Entity-Relationship Diagram) A diagram that shows entities, attributes, and relationships. 🔹 Object-based vs Field-based Model Type Meaning Exa...

estuarine responses to sea-level rise

estuarine responses to sea-level rise Disaster management Nbs Nature based solutions

Geomorphology

Linear offset geomorphic features of strike-slip fault, such as scarps, offset ridges, sag ponds, shutter ridges, and drainages, springs, and beheaded streams #geomorphology

Terrestrial Ecosystem

A terrestrial ecosystem is a land-based ecological system where biotic components (living organisms) interact with abiotic components (non-living physical and chemical factors). Covers approximately 28–29% of Earth's surface (land area). Organized into large ecological regions called biomes . Distribution is mainly controlled by: Temperature Precipitation Latitude Altitude Components A. Biotic Components Producers (Autotrophs) Green plants and photosynthetic organisms. Convert solar energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis . Form the primary productivity base . Consumers (Heterotrophs) Primary consumers (herbivores) Secondary/Tertiary consumers (carnivores, omnivores) Decomposers (Detritivores & Saprotrophs) Bacteria and fungi. Responsible for nutrient cycling and mineralization . B. Abiotic Components Soil (edaphic factors) Climate (temperature, precipitation, humidity) Solar radiation Topography Wind patterns These factors regulate primary productivity , ...

Disaster management flood

Floods are among the most frequent and devastating extreme events — responsible for 44% of disasters between 2000 and 2019, affecting 1.6 billion people and causing $650 billion in losses. What makes floods particularly complex is their systemic nature: 🔹 Climate change intensifies rainfall, snowmelt, and sea-level rise 🔹 Rapid urbanisation seals land and overloads drainage 🔹 Deforestation, soil degradation, and river straightening amplify runoff 🔹 Marginalised groups remain the most exposed Floods come in three forms — fluvial (river), pluvial (rainfall), and coastal — and each requires tailored approaches. But all demand integrated flood management that combines: ✅ Effective governance and early warning systems ✅ Technological innovation, adapted to local realities ✅ Social resilience and traditional knowledge ✅ Nature-based solutions, from mangroves to wetlands The evidence is clear: piecemeal fixes won't suffice. Building resilience to floods requires investment in holistic...

Epidemic Endemic Pandemic

Model of Geographical Enquiry

The Model of Geographical Enquiry is a step-by-step method used by geographers to study any spatial problem — like floods, urban growth, crime, climate change, etc. It has five stages : Pattern – What is happening and where? (Observation and Identification) This stage identifies the spatial pattern of a phenomenon. 🔎 What we do: Collect data Map the distribution Identify clusters, trends, or hotspots 📌 Example 1: Floods Suppose we study floods in Kerala. We map flood-affected districts. We notice severe flooding in low-lying river basins. 👉 Pattern: Floods are concentrated near major rivers like Periyar and Pamba. 📌 Example 2: Urban Growth Using satellite images: We observe built-up area increasing around city centers. 👉 Pattern: Urban expansion is concentrated along highways. Process – Why is it happening there? (Explanation and Analysis) Now we explain the reasons behind the pattern. 🔎 What we do: Analyze causes Study physical and human factors Use statistical or GIS analysis...