Vineesh V, Geography

The Air Act, 1981 was passed by the Indian Parliament on 29 March 1981 and came into force in May 1981 . It is India's first major law to control air pollution . It was enacted after the 1972 United Nations Conference on Human Environment in Stockholm , where India promised to protect the environment. The Act was passed under Article 253 of the Indian Constitution , which allows Parliament to make laws to fulfill international agreements. 📌 Why Was This Act Needed? During the 1970s and 1980s: Rapid industrialization Growth of urban areas Increase in vehicles Use of coal and fossil fuels led to severe air pollution in Indian cities. From an Environmental Geography perspective , this shows how human activities (anthropogenic factors) affect the atmosphere , creating environmental problems like smog, acid rain, and health hazards. Objectives The Act aims to: Prevent air pollution Control emission of pollutants Reduce (abate) existing pollution Maintain air quality standards Air...

Geographic database design means planning how spatial data (maps + attributes) will be stored in a GIS system. It is done in three main phases : Conceptual Design → What data is needed? Logical Design → How should data be structured? Physical Design → How will it be implemented in software? Conceptual Database Design (The "WHAT" Phase) 🔹 Meaning This is the high-level planning stage . It focuses on understanding real-world geographic features and their relationships. It is independent of any software (not linked to PostgreSQL, ArcGIS, etc.). 🔹 Key Terminologies Entity → A real-world object Example: River, Road, Building, Village Attribute → Information about an entity Example: River → Name, Length Road → Type, Width Relationship → How entities are connected Example: Road crosses River Village located near River ER Diagram (Entity-Relationship Diagram) A diagram that shows entities, attributes, and relationships. 🔹 Object-based vs Field-based Model Type Meaning Exa...

estuarine responses to sea-level rise Disaster management  Nbs Nature based solutions 

Linear offset geomorphic features of strike-slip fault, such as scarps,  offset ridges,  sag ponds,  shutter ridges, and  drainages,  springs, and  beheaded streams #geomorphology

A terrestrial ecosystem is a land-based ecological system where biotic components (living organisms) interact with abiotic components (non-living physical and chemical factors). Covers approximately 28–29% of Earth's surface (land area). Organized into large ecological regions called biomes . Distribution is mainly controlled by: Temperature Precipitation Latitude Altitude  Components A. Biotic Components Producers (Autotrophs) Green plants and photosynthetic organisms. Convert solar energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis . Form the primary productivity base . Consumers (Heterotrophs) Primary consumers (herbivores) Secondary/Tertiary consumers (carnivores, omnivores) Decomposers (Detritivores & Saprotrophs) Bacteria and fungi. Responsible for nutrient cycling and mineralization . B. Abiotic Components Soil (edaphic factors) Climate (temperature, precipitation, humidity) Solar radiation Topography Wind patterns These factors regulate primary productivity , ...

Floods are among the most frequent and devastating extreme events — responsible for 44% of disasters between 2000 and 2019, affecting 1.6 billion people and causing $650 billion in losses. What makes floods particularly complex is their systemic nature: 🔹 Climate change intensifies rainfall, snowmelt, and sea-level rise 🔹 Rapid urbanisation seals land and overloads drainage 🔹 Deforestation, soil degradation, and river straightening amplify runoff 🔹 Marginalised groups remain the most exposed Floods come in three forms — fluvial (river), pluvial (rainfall), and coastal — and each requires tailored approaches. But all demand integrated flood management that combines: ✅ Effective governance and early warning systems ✅ Technological innovation, adapted to local realities ✅ Social resilience and traditional knowledge ✅ Nature-based solutions, from mangroves to wetlands The evidence is clear: piecemeal fixes won't suffice. Building resilience to floods requires investment in holistic...

Epidemic  Endemic  Pandemic 

The Model of Geographical Enquiry is a step-by-step method used by geographers to study any spatial problem — like floods, urban growth, crime, climate change, etc. It has five stages : Pattern – What is happening and where? (Observation and Identification) This stage identifies the spatial pattern of a phenomenon. 🔎 What we do: Collect data Map the distribution Identify clusters, trends, or hotspots 📌 Example 1: Floods Suppose we study floods in Kerala. We map flood-affected districts. We notice severe flooding in low-lying river basins. 👉 Pattern: Floods are concentrated near major rivers like Periyar and Pamba. 📌 Example 2: Urban Growth Using satellite images: We observe built-up area increasing around city centers. 👉 Pattern: Urban expansion is concentrated along highways. Process – Why is it happening there? (Explanation and Analysis) Now we explain the reasons behind the pattern. 🔎 What we do: Analyze causes Study physical and human factors Use statistical or GIS analysis...

The environment means everything around us that affects living things, including humans. Biotic components – Living things like plants, animals, and humans. Abiotic components – Non-living things like air, water, soil, climate, and landforms. Built / Cultural Environment – Things created by humans such as cities, roads, dams, and farms. 👉 In simple words: Environment = Nature + Living things + Human-made surroundings. Environmental Thought Environmental thought means ideas about how humans and nature are connected . These ideas changed over time. Major Theories 1. Environmental Determinism Says nature controls humans . Example: People in cold areas wear warm clothes and build strong houses. 2. Possibilism Says nature gives limits, but humans can choose how to live . Example: Desert areas have less water, but humans build canals and irrigation. 3. Neo-determinism (Stop-and-Go Determinism) Says humans can develop using nature but must respect environmental limits. Example: Excess in...