Vineesh V, Geography

In Remote Sensing and GIS, DSM, DTM, DEM, CHM, and FHM are elevation-based digital surface representations derived from LiDAR, photogrammetry, stereo satellite imagery, or radar (e.g., InSAR) . They are raster-based 3D models where each pixel stores an elevation (Z-value) relative to a vertical datum (e.g., Mean Sea Level). DEM – Digital Elevation Model Concept A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is a generic term for a raster grid representing elevation values of the Earth's surface. It represents a continuous field surface Each pixel contains a Z-value (elevation) It may represent bare earth or surface, depending on data source Terminologies Raster resolution – spatial pixel size (e.g., 10 m, 30 m) Vertical accuracy – elevation precision (± m) Elevation datum – reference level (e.g., MSL, WGS84 ellipsoid) Grid-based terrain model Digital surface representation Important Clarification DEM is often used as an umbrella term In many datasets, DEM ≈ DTM (bare earth) Technically, DEM...

Stockholm Confrence  The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment , held in Stockholm from 5–16 June 1972 , was the first major intergovernmental summit devoted exclusively to global environmental issues. Proposed by Sweden in 1968 and convened under UN General Assembly Resolution 2398 (XXIII), it marked the formal emergence of international environmental governance . The conference adopted the theme "Only One Earth," underscoring planetary interdependence and shared ecological responsibility. History  The conference occurred during a period of rapid post-war industrialization characterized by: Severe air and water pollution Transboundary environmental impacts Accelerated resource depletion Growing public environmental awareness It aimed to establish a coordinated global framework for addressing environmental degradation beyond national boundaries. A significant intellectual contribution came from Indira Gandhi , who emphasized that poverty is a major driver of en...

1. Historical Evolution of EIA in India Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in India originated during 1976–77 , initially applied as an administrative appraisal mechanism for river valley and hydroelectric projects. During this early phase (1976–1993), environmental scrutiny was undertaken by the Planning Commission and later by the Department of Science and Technology (DST), primarily for projects requiring approval from the Public Investment Board. The process evolved into a statutory environmental governance instrument under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 , which empowered the central government to regulate activities affecting environmental quality. The 1994 EIA Notification The landmark 1994 EIA Notification , issued by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), made Environmental Clearance (EC) mandatory for 30 categories of developmental projects. This marked the formal institutionalization of EIA as a legally binding regulatory requirement. The notification u...

1. Davis – Geographical Cycle of Erosion (Time-Controlled Model) Proposed by: William Morris Davis Core Concept Davis proposed that landforms evolve through a sequential, time-dependent cycle following a single episode of rapid tectonic uplift . After uplift, erosion becomes the dominant geomorphic agent. Fundamental Assumptions Structure + Process + Time = Landscape form Uplift is rapid and followed by tectonic stability Denudation operates progressively through stages Landscape evolution is orderly and predictable Stages of the Cycle Youth Stage High relief and steep gradients Deep, narrow V-shaped valleys Active vertical erosion Presence of waterfalls and rapids Maturity Stage Maximum relief Valley widening through lateral erosion Well-developed drainage network Reduced interfluves Old Age Stage Low relief surface Extensive lateral erosion Broad floodplains Formation of a nearly level surface called a peneplain Key Terminologies Base level Graded river Peneplain Sequential develop...

In Remote Sensing , satellites record electromagnetic radiation (EMR) that is reflected or emitted from the Earth. Before reaching the sensor, radiation interacts with: The Atmosphere The Earth's Surface These interactions control how satellite images look and how we interpret them. I. Interaction of EMR with the Atmosphere When solar radiation travels from the Sun to the Earth, four main processes occur: 1. Absorption Definition: Absorption occurs when atmospheric gases absorb radiation at specific wavelengths and convert it into heat. Main absorbing gases: Ozone (O₃) → absorbs Ultraviolet (UV) Carbon dioxide (CO₂) → absorbs Thermal Infrared Water vapour (H₂O) → absorbs Infrared Concept: Atmospheric Windows These are wavelength regions where absorption is very low, allowing radiation to pass through the atmosphere. Remote sensing depends on these windows. For example, satellites like Landsat 8 use visible, near-infrared, and thermal bands located in atmospheric windows. 2. Trans...

Plate tectonics 

The Air Act, 1981 was passed by the Indian Parliament on 29 March 1981 and came into force in May 1981 . It is India's first major law to control air pollution . It was enacted after the 1972 United Nations Conference on Human Environment in Stockholm , where India promised to protect the environment. The Act was passed under Article 253 of the Indian Constitution , which allows Parliament to make laws to fulfill international agreements. 📌 Why Was This Act Needed? During the 1970s and 1980s: Rapid industrialization Growth of urban areas Increase in vehicles Use of coal and fossil fuels led to severe air pollution in Indian cities. From an Environmental Geography perspective , this shows how human activities (anthropogenic factors) affect the atmosphere , creating environmental problems like smog, acid rain, and health hazards. Objectives The Act aims to: Prevent air pollution Control emission of pollutants Reduce (abate) existing pollution Maintain air quality standards Air...

Geographic database design means planning how spatial data (maps + attributes) will be stored in a GIS system. It is done in three main phases : Conceptual Design → What data is needed? Logical Design → How should data be structured? Physical Design → How will it be implemented in software? Conceptual Database Design (The "WHAT" Phase) 🔹 Meaning This is the high-level planning stage . It focuses on understanding real-world geographic features and their relationships. It is independent of any software (not linked to PostgreSQL, ArcGIS, etc.). 🔹 Key Terminologies Entity → A real-world object Example: River, Road, Building, Village Attribute → Information about an entity Example: River → Name, Length Road → Type, Width Relationship → How entities are connected Example: Road crosses River Village located near River ER Diagram (Entity-Relationship Diagram) A diagram that shows entities, attributes, and relationships. 🔹 Object-based vs Field-based Model Type Meaning Exa...

estuarine responses to sea-level rise Disaster management  Nbs Nature based solutions