Geography of Water Resources. Scope.

1. Distribution and Availability : Study of how water is distributed across different geographic regions, including its presence in oceans, rivers, lakes, groundwater, and glaciers.

2. Hydrological Cycle : Examination of the movement of water through evaporation, condensation, precipitation, runoff, and groundwater recharge.

3. Water Quality : Analysis of the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of water, addressing issues like pollution and contamination.

4. Water Scarcity : Exploration of areas where water supply is insufficient to meet demand, often due to factors like population growth, climate change, and mismanagement.

5. Water Management : Study of strategies to conserve, allocate, and regulate water resources, including infrastructure like dams, reservoirs, and irrigation systems.

6. Water-related Ecosystems : Understanding the influence of water on various ecosystems, such as wetlands, rivers, estuaries, and coastal areas.

7. Human Impact : Examination of how human activities like agriculture, industry, and urbanization affect water resources and ecosystems.

8. Climate Change : Analysis of how changing climate patterns impact water availability, precipitation, and overall water resource management.

9. Transboundary Water Issues : Study of conflicts and cooperation between regions or countries sharing water resources, often leading to complex geopolitical considerations.

10. Sustainable Development : Focus on ensuring equitable access to clean water while balancing ecological, economic, and social needs for present and future generations.

11. Policy and Governance : Exploration of laws, regulations, and management practices aimed at protecting and sustaining water resources.

12. Water-related Hazards : Study of natural events like floods, droughts, and tsunamis, and their implications for water resource planning and disaster management.

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geostationary and sun-synchronous

Orbital characteristics of Remote sensing satellite geostationary and sun-synchronous Orbits in Remote Sensing Orbit = the path a satellite follows around the Earth. The orbit determines what part of Earth the satellite can see , how often it revisits , and what applications it is good for . Remote sensing satellites mainly use two standard orbits : Geostationary Orbit (GEO) Sun-Synchronous Orbit (SSO) Geostationary Satellites (GEO) Characteristics Altitude : ~35,786 km above the equator. Period : 24 hours → same as Earth's rotation. Orbit type : Circular, directly above the equator . Appears "stationary" over one fixed point on Earth. Concepts & Terminologies Geosynchronous = orbit period matches Earth's rotation (24h). Geostationary = special type of geosynchronous orbit directly above equator → looks fixed. Continuous coverage : Can monitor the same area all the time. Applications Weather...

Man-Made Disasters

A man-made disaster (also called a technological disaster or anthropogenic disaster ) is a catastrophic event caused directly or indirectly by human actions , rather than natural processes. These disasters arise due to negligence, error, industrial activity, conflict, or misuse of technology , and often result in loss of life, property damage, and environmental degradation . Terminology: Anthropogenic = originating from human activity. Technological hazard = hazard caused by failure or misuse of technology or industry. 🔹 Conceptual Understanding Man-made disasters are part of the Disaster Management Cycle , which includes: Prevention – avoiding unsafe practices. Mitigation – reducing disaster impact (e.g., safety regulations). Preparedness – training and planning. Response – emergency actions after the disaster. Recovery – long-term rebuilding and policy correction. These disasters are predictable and preventable through strong...

Platforms in Remote Sensing

In remote sensing, a platform is the physical structure or vehicle that carries a sensor (camera, scanner, radar, etc.) to observe and collect information about the Earth's surface. Platforms are classified mainly by their altitude and mobility : Ground-Based Platforms Definition : Sensors mounted on the Earth's surface or very close to it. Examples : Tripods, towers, ground vehicles, handheld instruments. Applications : Calibration and validation of satellite data Detailed local studies (e.g., soil properties, vegetation health, air quality) Strength : High spatial detail but limited coverage. Airborne Platforms Definition : Sensors carried by aircraft, balloons, or drones (UAVs). Altitude : A few hundred meters to ~20 km. Examples : Airplanes with multispectral scanners UAVs with high-resolution cameras or LiDAR High-altitude balloons (stratospheric platforms) Applications : Local-to-regional mapping ...

Types of Remote Sensing

Remote Sensing means collecting information about the Earth's surface without touching it , usually using satellites, aircraft, or drones . There are different types of remote sensing based on the energy source and the wavelength region used. 🛰️ 1. Active Remote Sensing 📘 Concept: In active remote sensing , the sensor sends out its own energy (like a signal or pulse) to the Earth's surface. The sensor then records the reflected or backscattered energy that comes back from the surface. ⚙️ Key Terminology: Transmitter: sends energy (like a radar pulse or laser beam). Receiver: detects the energy that bounces back. Backscatter: energy that is reflected back to the sensor. 📊 Examples of Active Sensors: RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging): Uses microwave signals to detect surface roughness, soil moisture, or ocean waves. LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): Uses laser light (near-infrared) to measure elevation, vegetation...

Contrast Enhancement

Image enhancement is the process of improving the visual quality and interpretability of an image. The goal is not to change the physical meaning of the image data , but to make important features easier to identify for visual interpretation or automatic analysis (e.g., classification, feature extraction). In simple terms, image enhancement helps make an image clearer, sharper, and more informative for human eyes or computer algorithms. Purpose of Image Enhancement To improve visual appearance of images. To highlight specific features such as roads, rivers, vegetation, or built-up areas. To enhance contrast or brightness for better differentiation. To reduce noise or remove distortions. To prepare images for further processing like classification or edge detection. Common Image Enhancement Operations Image Reduction: Decreases the size or resolution of an image. Useful for faster processing or overview visualization. Image Mag...

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