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Territorial Conflicts – India and Pakistan, India and China, India- Bangladesh


Territorial conflicts are disputes where two or more countries claim sovereignty over a geographic region. These disputes typically arise due to:

  • Historical claims

  • Colonial-era boundary definitions

  • Ethnic or cultural overlap

  • Strategic and resource significance

  • River dynamics and shifting landforms

Key Concepts:

1. Boundary

A legally established line separating the territories of two states.

2. Border / Frontier

A broader zone of interaction and control around a boundary.

3. LOC (Line of Control)

A de facto military control line (India–Pakistan in Jammu & Kashmir).

4. LAC (Line of Actual Control)

A de facto border separating Indian and Chinese-administered territories.

5. Radcliffe Line

The 1947 boundary line dividing India and Pakistan (later India and Bangladesh).

6. Enclave / Exclave

Territorial pockets of one country surrounded by another (e.g., India–Bangladesh enclaves before 2015).

7. Riverine Boundary

A border defined by a river, which may shift due to sedimentation or erosion (e.g., India–Bangladesh).

1. India–Pakistan Territorial Conflict

Key Region: Jammu & Kashmir (J&K)

The India–Pakistan conflict is primarily over the princely state of Jammu & Kashmir following the 1947 partition.

Geographical Highlights

  • The region lies in the Himalayan mountain system.

  • Rich in glaciers, including Siachen Glacier (world's highest battlefield).

  • Important rivers of the Indus River System originate here.

Zones of Conflict

  1. The Line of Control (LOC)

    • De facto border, approx. 740 km long.

    • Divides India-administered J&K and Pakistan-administered territories (PoK).

  2. Siachen Glacier Conflict

    • Located in the Karakoram Range.

    • Dispute emerged due to ambiguous boundary beyond NJ9842 point.

    • India controls most of the glacier since Operation Meghdoot (1984).

  3. Sir Creek Dispute

    • A marshy estuary in the Rann of Kachchh, Gujarat.

    • Disagreement on river boundary and maritime extension affecting Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).

Key Geopolitical Terms

  • PoK (Pakistan-occupied Kashmir) – Includes Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir.

  • AGPL (Actual Ground Position Line) – Military control line on the Siachen Glacier.

  • Indus Waters Treaty (1960) – Governs shared river resources.

2. India–China Territorial Conflict

The India–China conflict involves high-altitude Himalayan frontiers, undefined colonial-era borders, and competing geopolitical claims.

Main Disputed Areas

  1. Aksai Chin (India's claim; controlled by China)

  2. Arunachal Pradesh (China claims as "South Tibet")

  3. Central Sector Disputes (Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh)

A. Western Sector – Aksai Chin

  • A cold desert plateau in the Karakoram and Kunlun mountain region.

  • India considers it part of Ladakh (Union Territory).

  • China controls it and uses it as a strategic link between Xinjiang and Tibet via the China National Highway G219.

Origin of Dispute

  • Different colonial boundary proposals:

    • Johnson Line (India's claim) → places Aksai Chin inside India.

    • McDonald Line (China's claim) → places Aksai Chin inside China.

Recent Geography-Based Flashpoints

  • Galwan Valley clash (2020)

  • Pangong Tso Lake (finger areas)

  • Depsang Plains

B. Eastern Sector – Arunachal Pradesh

  • China refers to it as Zangnan or South Tibet.

  • The McMahon Line (1914) marks India's boundary; China rejects it.

  • Region characterized by Eastern Himalayas, dense forests, and high biodiversity.

Key contested areas

  • Tawang region (geopolitical and cultural significance)

  • Bum La Pass

C. Central Sector

Minor disputes in areas of:

  • Barahoti (Uttarakhand)

  • Shipki La, Kaurik (Himachal Pradesh)

Less tense compared to western and eastern sectors.

3. India–Bangladesh Territorial Conflict

Although mostly resolved, India and Bangladesh historically had disputes due to river dynamics, enclaves, and undefined boundary segments.

A. Origin: The Radcliffe Line

  • Boundary drawn in 1947 to divide British India into India and Pakistan (East Pakistan later became Bangladesh in 1971).

  • Passed through Bengal's riverine plains, causing ambiguity due to shifting rivers.

B. Key Issues

1. Enclaves and Exclaves (Chitmahals) – Resolved

  • Before 2015, there were 162 enclaves (Indian land in Bangladesh and vice versa).

  • These created governance and human rights challenges.

  • Land Boundary Agreement (2015) exchanged enclaves and settled the boundary.

2. Riverine Boundary Issues

  • Rivers like Ganga-Padma, Teesta, Dharla, and Feni constantly change course.

  • Results in disputes over:

    • Char lands (river-formed mid-channel islands)

    • Erosion and deposition

    • Ownership of newly formed land

3. Teesta River Water Sharing

  • A major unresolved hydropolitical issue.

  • Teesta is crucial for irrigation in both West Bengal and Bangladesh.

  • No final agreement due to interstate concerns within India.

4. Maritime Boundary

  • Resolved in 2014 through the Permanent Court of Arbitration.

  • Included the Bay of Bengal maritime limits and EEZ access.


CountryMain Areas of ConflictType of Boundary Issue
PakistanJammu & Kashmir, Siachen, Sir CreekPolitical boundary, glacier boundary, maritime boundary
ChinaAksai Chin, Arunachal Pradesh, Central SectorUndefined boundary, historic treaties, high-altitude frontier
BangladeshEnclaves (resolved), river boundaries, TeestaRiverine boundaries, enclaves, hydropolitics


  • Mountain frontiers (Himalayas, Karakoram) complicate demarcation with Pakistan and China.

  • Riverine boundaries along Bangladesh shift due to fluvial processes.

  • Strategic passes, plateaus, and high-altitude terrains play a major role (Aksai Chin, Siachen).

  • Resource and water sharing remain central concerns (Indus, Teesta).

  • Colonial boundary-making still influences modern geopolitics (Radcliffe Line, McMahon Line).


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