Future of International laws-Paris conference.

Paris Agreement, which was adopted during the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP 21) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) held in Paris in 2015.

The Paris Agreement is a landmark international treaty that addresses climate change and aims to limit global warming well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and pursue efforts to limit it to 1.5 degrees Celsius. It represents a collective commitment by nations to combat climate change, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and adapt to its impacts.

Key aspects of the Paris Agreement include:

1. Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Countries are required to submit their individual NDCs, which outline their efforts to reduce emissions and adapt to climate change. These contributions are intended to be ambitious and represent a country's efforts to achieve the overall objectives of the agreement.

2. Global Stocktake: The agreement establishes a process for a regular global stocktake to assess collective progress towards achieving the long-term goals of the agreement. This stocktake helps identify gaps and provides an opportunity for countries to enhance their climate actions.

3. Transparency Framework: The Paris Agreement emphasizes the importance of transparency and accountability. It establishes a robust transparency framework, requiring countries to regularly report on their emissions and implementation efforts, thus ensuring transparency and comparability of actions.

4. Adaptation and Loss & Damage: The agreement recognizes the need to strengthen adaptation efforts and support vulnerable countries in coping with the impacts of climate change. It also recognizes the concept of loss and damage associated with the adverse effects of climate change, including the impacts of extreme weather events and slow-onset events.

5. Climate Finance: The agreement calls for financial support from developed countries to assist developing countries in both mitigation and adaptation efforts. It aims to mobilize financial resources to address climate change, with a commitment to providing $100 billion annually by 2020, with a subsequent increase in funding in the future.

The Paris Agreement has garnered significant international support, with the majority of countries ratifying or acceding to it. It represents a collective effort to address climate change and transition toward a low-carbon, climate-resilient future. The agreement has helped shape global action on climate change and has influenced domestic policies and strategies worldwide. However, it is important to note that the effectiveness of the Paris Agreement will ultimately depend on the commitment and implementation of its provisions by the participating countries.

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History of GIS

1. 1832 - Early Spatial Analysis in Epidemiology: - Charles Picquet creates a map in Paris detailing cholera deaths per 1,000 inhabitants. - Utilizes halftone color gradients for visual representation. 2. 1854 - John Snow's Cholera Outbreak Analysis: - Epidemiologist John Snow identifies cholera outbreak source in London using spatial analysis. - Maps casualties' residences and nearby water sources to pinpoint the outbreak's origin. 3. Early 20th Century - Photozincography and Layered Mapping: - Photozincography development allows maps to be split into layers for vegetation, water, etc. - Introduction of layers, later a key feature in GIS, for separate printing plates. 4. Mid-20th Century - Computer Facilitation of Cartography: - Waldo Tobler's 1959 publication details using computers for cartography. - Computer hardware development, driven by nuclear weapon research, leads to broader mapping applications by early 1960s. 5. 1960 - Canada Geograph...

Supervised Classification

Image Classification in Remote Sensing Image classification in remote sensing involves categorizing pixels in an image into thematic classes to produce a map. This process is essential for land use and land cover mapping, environmental studies, and resource management. The two primary methods for classification are Supervised and Unsupervised Classification . Here's a breakdown of these methods and the key stages of image classification. 1. Types of Classification Supervised Classification In supervised classification, the analyst manually defines classes of interest (known as information classes ), such as "water," "urban," or "vegetation," and identifies training areas —sections of the image that are representative of these classes. Using these training areas, the algorithm learns the spectral characteristics of each class and applies them to classify the entire image. When to Use Supervised Classification: - You have prior knowledge about the c...

Supervised Classification

In the context of Remote Sensing (RS) and Digital Image Processing (DIP) , supervised classification is the process where an analyst defines "training sites" (Areas of Interest or ROIs) representing known land cover classes (e.g., Water, Forest, Urban). The computer then uses these training samples to teach an algorithm how to classify the rest of the image pixels. The algorithms used to classify these pixels are generally divided into two broad categories: Parametric and Nonparametric decision rules. Parametric Decision Rules These algorithms assume that the pixel values in the training data follow a specific statistical distribution—almost always the Gaussian (Normal) distribution (the "Bell Curve"). Key Concept: They model the data using statistical parameters: the Mean vector ( $\mu$ ) and the Covariance matrix ( $\Sigma$ ) . Analogy: Imagine trying to fit a smooth hill over your data points. If a new point lands high up on the hill, it belongs to that cl...

History of GIS

The history of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is rooted in early efforts to understand spatial relationships and patterns, long before the advent of digital computers. While modern GIS emerged in the mid-20th century with advances in computing, its conceptual foundations lie in cartography, spatial analysis, and thematic mapping. Early Roots of Spatial Analysis (Pre-1960s) One of the earliest documented applications of spatial analysis dates back to 1832 , when Charles Picquet , a French geographer and cartographer, produced a cholera mortality map of Paris. In his report Rapport sur la marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le département de la Seine , Picquet used graduated color shading to represent cholera deaths per 1,000 inhabitants across 48 districts. This work is widely regarded as an early example of choropleth mapping and thematic cartography applied to epidemiology. A landmark moment in the history of spatial analysis occurred in 1854 , when John Snow inv...

Representation of Spatial and Temporal Relationships

In GIS, spatial and temporal relationships allow the integration of location (the "where") and time (the "when") to analyze phenomena across space and time. This combination is fundamental to studying dynamic processes such as urban growth, land-use changes, or natural disasters. Key Concepts and Terminologies Geographic Coordinates : Define the position of features on Earth using latitude, longitude, or other coordinate systems. Example: A building's location can be represented as (11.6994° N, 76.0773° E). Timestamp : Represents the temporal aspect of data, such as the date or time a phenomenon was observed. Example: A landslide occurrence recorded on 30/07/2024 . Spatial and Temporal Relationships : Describes how features relate in space and time. These relationships can be: Spatial : Topological (e.g., "intersects"), directional (e.g., "north of"), or proximity-based (e.g., "near"). Temporal : Sequential (e....

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